Amino Acid Phenylalanine Applications

Amino Acid Phenylalanine Applications Phenylalanine is an electrically neutral amino acid with the chemical formula C9H11NO2. This essential amino acid is one of 20 building blocks of proteins in humans. Due to its benzyl group, phenylalanine is hydrophobic. Since its discovery in 1879, phenylalanine has been studied for its antidepressant and analgesic effects. The synthesis of phenylalanine is complex and does not occur in mammals. The metabolism of phenylalanine produces various hormones and neurotransmitters. Genetic mutations can result in several disorders relating to the metabolism of phenylalanine. This report will identify the biological importance of the amino acid phenylalanine by examining its history, uses, metabolic pathways and disorders, and biological synthesis. Discovery and History Schulze and Barbieri discovered phenylalanine in plant sprouts in 1879. The researchers extracted phenylalanine copper salts from Lupinus Zuteus seedlings, which were refined to isolate phenylalanine (â€Å"L-Phenylalanine ,† n.d.). Before 1940, research on phenylalanine did not describe its biological metabolism during the formation of tyrosine. Womack and Rose showed the essentiality and dependence on phenylalanine in the diet of rats. Dietary intake of tyrosine in the rats was deemed nonessential. Evidence from the trials proved that phenylalanine is the precursor of tyrosine, but phenylalanine cannot be synthesized from tyrosine (Matthews, 2007). The discovery of the codon of phenylalanine was a significant breakthrough in determining the relationship between messenger ribonucleic acid and protein production. In 1961, Matthaei and Nirenberg repeatedly inserted uracil nucleotides into E. coli bacteria, producing long phenylalanine peptide chains. The researchers deduced that the codons for phenylalanine include UUU and UUC (â€Å"Phenylalanine,† 2009). In the 1960s, a more efficient method of phenylalanine production resulted in the large-scale fermentation of phenylalanine. This metho d was incorporated into the nutritional supplement and drug industries (â€Å"L-Phenylalanine,† n.d.). Phenylalanine supplements are currently used to treat depression, chronic pain, Parkinson’s disease, and vitiligo (â€Å"Supplements with Similar,† n.d.). Since 1981, aspartame has been used as a food additive in Canada. Aspartame degrades through metabolism and digestion to form phenylalanine. Phenylalanine has recently been under intense scrutiny due to its elevated levels in aspartame, and the occurrence of phenylketonuria (â€Å"Aspartame,† 2005). Importance and Uses Phenylalanine is an essential amino acid in the diet of humans. Mammals cannot form benzene rings, therefore limiting the biosynthesis of phenylalanine in humans (Kretchmer & Etzwiler, 1958). Phenylalanine is important in amino acid metabolism and the synthesis of structural proteins in tissue. The concentrations of phenylalanine control the amounts of other electrically neutral amino ac ids in the brain (Humphries, Pretorius, & Naude, 2007). Phenylalanine is an essential building block for many hormones and neurotransmitters. Phenylalanine is converted into DOPA, dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine, phenylethylamine, and phenylacetate (Humphries et al., 2007). Depression can be treated with phenylalanine medication. Treatment of oral and intravenous application of deprenyl plus phenylalanine has significant antidepressant action (Birkmayer, Linauer, Riederer, & Knoll, 1984). While many natural health and nutritional companies claim D-phenylalanine is effective in chronic pain reduction, clinical studies have determined no significant analgesic results (Walsh, Ramamurthy, Schoenfeld, & Hoffman, 1986). L-DOPA, a molecule composed of a phenylalanine base, has been used as a symptom repressor in Parkinson’s disease for over fifty years. In 1967, Cortzias showed in his report on Parkinson’s disease, that L-DOPA has a noteworthy rehabilitative quality in reducing rigidity and akinesia (McDowell & Lee, 1970). The major problem of Parkinson’s disease is lowered levels of dopamine in the brain due to trauma or dysfunction of dopaminergic cells. Administered L-DOPA is able to cross the blood-brain barrier for conversion into dopamine, thus increasing dopamine levels (â€Å"Oxidation of L-dopa,† 2002). Current research suggests that phenylalanine administration along with ultraviolet radiation aids in vitiligo patients. The phenylalanine absorbs the radiation resulting in slight pigmentation changes in the skin (â€Å"Supplements with Similar,† n.d.).

National Identification System in the United States Essay

National Identification System in the United States - Essay Example National Identification System In The United States Firstly, it is national because it is used throughout the country having nationally uniform identifiers and formats. Secondly, the system is for practical and legal use only. Cards like credit cards can also be used to identify a person, but they are not national identity cards. People can have a number of such cards or no cards at all and still roam about in the country without any problems. However, if the law makes it mandatory for everyone to have such cards for identification purposes, it then comes in the category of national identity cards. Last but not the least; the system is used for the identification of an individual. It is different from a social security number. A social security number attaches a number to the name of a person and is just a national identifier. A national identity card actually proves the identity of a person. It shows that a person, previously known to the system, has once again presented himself or herself. It involves a biometric tie between the num ber and the person. The card would not only have the name and address of the person, but it also involves a compulsory facial image of a person on the card. The chip inside the card will help the law officials in identifying whether a person is on government’s watch list or not. Finger prints or retinal images on the card will also help in the identification of a person. This will help in retrieving information about the person from the government databases and immigration agencies as well. Many people are of the view that had such a system been implemented earlier, it would have probably helped in averting the 9/11 tragedy. The issue is still unclear whether everyone or a section of society should have such cards or where to use them such as at the airports or when accessing government buildings etc (Wang, pg, 1. 2002). Here it would be pertinent to discuss the National Identification Legislation in detail: NATIONAL IDENTIFICATION LEGISLATION: 9/11 COMMISSION RECOMMENDATION: Evaluating the 9/11 terrorist

Age discrimination in Employment Research Paper

Age discrimination in Employment - Research Paper Example However, this lack of recognition of age discrimination relates to the fact that the matters surrounding it are not succinctly apprehended. For instance, most of the forms of discrimination in workplaces are grounded on historical biases against a specific recognizable group such as women and ethnic minorities; nonetheless, age does not define a specific or recognizable group. Reasonably, age is a range along which differences between people are frequently elusive and relative (Sergeant, 2013). Additionally, while sex or race prejudice may be grounded on dubious presumptions about the capability of an employee to carry out a task, not all the distinctions regarding age may be prejudiced (Sergeant, 2013). Mental and physical capabilities can lessen with time, but not at a similar rate among all the people. The physical and mental distinctions between the aged employees and the tasks requested to carry out means that some people are capable of doing the job while the others are not (Sergeant, 2013). Since age discrimination is seen in almost all organizations, there is legislation in distinct states to safeguard individuals against prejudice. New Mexico State has numerous laws and regulation set to protect people against age prejudice (New Mexico State Bar, 2014). This paper discusses employment age discrimination and its legislation with reference to New Mexico State. Age discrimination can be described as either direct or indirect (Sergeant, 2013). Direct age discrimination is described as a less favorable treatment because of a person’s age (Sergeant, 2013). This occurs when an aged individual is not considered for a job position because they are deemed outdated or not up to date with the present technology when compared with a young person. On the other end, indirect discrimination refers to the selection criteria, policies, employment rules, benefits, rules and other practices that if adopted have the effect of